Active Outline

General Information

Course ID (CB01A and CB01B)
HIST D03CH
Course Title (CB02)
World History from 1750 CE to the Present - HONORS
Course Credit Status
Credit - Degree Applicable
Effective Term
Fall 2023
Course Description
This course covers the era from 1750 Common Era (CE) and extending to the present, recent and current interactions between the world's peoples, cultures, and civilizations. Students will gain an interdisciplinary, multi-perspective view of world history, using a thematic approach and offering a balanced, representative and inclusive sampling of the world's cultures from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. Because this is an honors program course, students will be expected to complete extra assignments, or an additional longer assignment, to gain deeper insight into world history between 1750 CE and the present.
Faculty Requirements
Course Family
Not Applicable

Course Justification

This course introduces students to the chronological sequencing of world history from 1750 CE to the Present. This course also contributes to the fulfillment of major requirements for the Associate of Arts Degree for Transfer in History. In addition, this course meets a general education (G.E.) requirement for °®¶¹´«Ã½, CSU GE, and IGETC.

Foothill Equivalency

Does the course have a Foothill equivalent?
No
Foothill Course ID

Course Philosophy

Formerly Statement

Course Development Options

Basic Skill Status (CB08)
Course is not a basic skills course.
Grade Options
  • Letter Grade
  • Pass/No Pass
Repeat Limit
0

Transferability & Gen. Ed. Options

Transferability
Transferable to both UC and CSU
°®¶¹´«Ã½ GEArea(s)StatusDetails
2GC2°®¶¹´«Ã½ GE Area C2 - HumanitiesApproved
2GDX°®¶¹´«Ã½ GE Area D - Social and Behavioral SciencesApproved
CSU GEArea(s)StatusDetails
CGC2CSU GE Area C2 - HumanitiesApproved
CGDYCSU GE Area D - Social SciencesApproved
IGETCArea(s)StatusDetails
IG3BIGETC Area 3B - HumanitiesApproved
IG4XIGETC Area 4 - Social and Behavioral SciencesApproved
C-IDArea(s)StatusDetails
HISTHistoryApprovedHIST D03BH & HIST D03CH required for C-ID HIST 160

Units and Hours

Summary

Minimum Credit Units
4.0
Maximum Credit Units
4.0

Weekly Student Hours

TypeIn ClassOut of Class
Lecture Hours4.08.0
Laboratory Hours0.00.0

Course Student Hours

Course Duration (Weeks)
12.0
Hours per unit divisor
36.0
Course In-Class (Contact) Hours
Lecture
48.0
Laboratory
0.0
Total
48.0
Course Out-of-Class Hours
Lecture
96.0
Laboratory
0.0
NA
0.0
Total
96.0

Prerequisite(s)

Corequisite(s)

Advisory(ies)

EWRT D001A or EWRT D01AH or ESL D005.

Limitation(s) on Enrollment

  • (Not open to students with credit in the non-Honors related course.)
  • (Admission into this course requires consent of the Honors Program Coordinator.)

Entrance Skill(s)

General Course Statement(s)

(See general education pages for the requirements this course meets.)

Methods of Instruction

Lecture and visual aids

Discussion of assigned reading

Discussion and problem solving performed in class

In-class or take-home essays

Collaborative learning and small group exercises: written or oral

Quiz and examination review performed in class

Map Assignments

In-class exploration of internet sites

Homework and extended projects

Guest speakers

Other: Film / documentary / or other media

Other: Map assignments

Assignments

  1. Regular Reading Assignments: Assigned readings from a college-level text(s), primary historical documents, and a secondary interpretation(s), from which students will gain and demonstrate, evaluate, synthesize, and critique knowledge of political, economic, social, and cultural events of the historical era for this course.
  2. Regular Writing Assignments: Selected from a combination of assignments such as: research papers, reading and viewing responses; in-class or take-home essays in exam format including the final exam; book review(s); and other analytic assignments that synthesize, critique and evaluate primary and secondary sources and demonstrate an understanding of the historical era for this course. Students will write a minimum of 1700 words during the quarter, including at least one individually typed paper of at least 750 words with proper citations.
  3. Group or individual participation in oral or written, analytical expression, such as: class discussions, debates, or assessments of texts, including primary historical documents or secondary interpretations in world history.
  4. Objective evaluation through assignments such as: quizzes, map identifications, or objective sections of in-class midterm(s) or the final examination in which students demonstrate the ability to critically evaluate, analyze, contextualize, synthesize or critique primary and secondary historical sources in world history.
  5. View assigned media shown in class or in the lab. Each viewing assignment is accompanied with specific written or oral questions or prompts to assess, contextualize, synthesize or critique.
  6. The honors project will include a written research paper of 8-10 pages total (or two shorter research papers of 4-5 pages each) which demonstrates analysis of additional historical sources, including both primary and secondary source material in world history between 1750 CE and the present. The honors project will require 10 or more hours of work beyond the regular (non-honors) course requirements, will include higher expectations for achievement in this more advanced work, and must include quotations, citations, and bibliography.

Methods of Evaluation

  1. Oral analysis: participation in and contribution toward classroom discussions, debates, exams, final or specified group project(s) in which students demonstrate analysis, synthesis, critique and critical thinking skills, such as clarity of argument and the use of evidence to support arguments, in oral interpretations of sources, including primary historical documents.
  2. Writing Assignments: Students will write a total of 1700 words in a variety of combinations that include at least one individually written paper of at least 750 words with proper citations, such as: an essay(s) exam, final, workbook(s), video review form(s), Power-point presentation(s), journal(s), book review(s), or other analytical project(s) in which students demonstrate the ability to critically analyze or synthesize thematic questions, primary historical documents, and secondary source interpretations of world history.
  3. Objective evaluation through assignments, such as: quizzes, final, map identifications, objective sections of in-class exams, or other analytical projects, in which students demonstrate, assess, synthesize or critique the knowledge of college-level secondary source readings and primary source documents in the era of history for this course.
  4. The honors project, a written research paper of 8-10 pages total (or two shorter research papers of 4-5 pages each) will be evaluated for depth of analysis of both primary and secondary sources, originality, critical thinking skills, historical references and citations, and a comprehensive discussion of the specific topic(s) in world history between 1750 CE and the present.

Essential Student Materials/Essential College Facilities

Essential Student Materials: 
  • None.
Essential College Facilities:
  • None.

Examples of Primary Texts and References

AuthorTitlePublisherDate/EditionISBN
Weisner-Hanks, Merry E. A Concise History of the World. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Duiker, William J. and Jackson J. Spielvogel. World History. 9th ed. Cengage Learning, 2019.
Reilly, Kevin. The Human Journey: A Concise Introduction to World History. 2nd ed. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
Strayer, Robert W. and Eric W. Nelson. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History: Combined Volume Third Edition. Bedford/St. Martin, 2015.
Tignor, Robert, et al. Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. Vol. C. 4th edition. New York: W. W. Norton, 2014.

Examples of Supporting Texts and References

AuthorTitlePublisher
Armitage, David and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, 1760-1840. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire [England]; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Achebe, Chinua; Francis Abiola Irele, ed. Things Fall Apart: Authoritative Text, Contexts and Criticism. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2009.
Kuhn, Philip A. Origins of the Modern Chinese State. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002.
Brown, Archie. The Rise and Fall of Communism. London: Bodley Head, 2009.
Mandela, Nelson. Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela. Boston: Little, Brown, 1994.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Beasley, W. G. The Rise of Modern Japan: Political, Economic, and Social Change since 1850. Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
Northrup, David. Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922. Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Chasteen, John Charles. Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2003.
Oliver, Roland Anthony. Africa since 1800. 5th ed. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Hobsbawm, Eric. On Empire: America, War, and Global Supremacy. New York: Pantheon Books, 2008.
Joll, James and Gordon Martel. The Origins of the First World War. (Origins of Modern Wars Series). 3rd edition. New York: Harlow, England; New York: Pearson/Longman, 2007.
McNeill, John Robert. Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century World. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2000.
DuBois, Thomas David, ed. Casting Faiths: Imperialism and the Transformation of Religion in East and Southeast Asia. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire [England]; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Kent, Bruce. The Spoils of War: The Politics, Economics, and Diplomacy of Reparations, 1918-1932. Oxford University Press/Clarendon, 1992.
Menchu, Rigoberta. I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala. 2nd ed. New York: Verso, 2010.
Timmons, Geoffrey and Steven King. Making Sense of the Industrial Revolution: English Economy and Society, 1700-1850. Manchester University Press/Palgrave, 2001.
Guha, Ramchandra. India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy. New York: Ecco, 2007.
Reilly, Kevin. Worlds of History: A Comparative Reader. 6th ed. Vol. 2. Boston: Bedford St. Martin's, 2016.
Engerman, Stanley. Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Smith, Bonnie, ed. Global Feminisms since 1945. London; New York: Routledge, 2000.
Simon, Rita J. and Alison Brooks. Gay and Lesbian Communities the World Over. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.
Keegan, John. The Second World War. Penguin Books; Reprint edition, 2005.
Cleveland, William L. and Martin Bunton. A History of the Modern Middle East. 5th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2012.
Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. Gender in History: Global Perspectives. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Learning Outcomes and Objectives

Course Objectives

  • Develop a critical understanding of the historical method in the context of world history, compare and contrast different perspectives in order to evaluate, explain, or defend and critique informed study with respect to world history through the use of primary and secondary sources.
  • Use primary and secondary sources from a diverse range of authors to contribute to an understanding of significant themes in the development of world history, while also fostering recognition and appreciation of the contributions of its diverse peoples: analyzing broad patterns of change on both an inter-regional scale and within complex societies; and, explain, interpret, or evaluate the historical, social, political, philosophical, literary, artistic and aesthetic developments across the boundaries of civilizations, regions, and cultures.
  • Demonstrate knowledge of various geographical regions over time and examine and assess the role of geography in shaping or influencing human societies throughout world history.
  • Use primary and secondary sources from multicultural, different methodologies, or perspectives to interpret and analyze historical evidence in order to: develop critical thinking skills, formulate multicultural, complex assessments, or diverse interpretations of historical issues and problems, including the impact on ordinary persons within world history, and to understand the chronology of the stages of development in the world from 1750 CE to the present.
  • Critically analyze the impact of a major historical event or historical figure(s), indicate both long-and short-term historical significance or compare and contrast with a contemporary event(s) or figure(s), for world history from 1750 CE to the present, to fulfill the college honors requirements for this course.

CSLOs

  • Demonstrate and apply knowledge of World history from 1750 CE to the present to construct defensible statements of meaning and evaluation about this period's developments.

  • Identify, critically evaluate, and interpret World history primary documents from 1750 CE to the present to construct historical analysis.

Outline

  1. Develop a critical understanding of the historical method in the context of world history, compare and contrast different perspectives in order to evaluate, explain, or defend and critique informed study with respect to world history through the use of primary and secondary sources.
    1. The study of history as it relates to world history, particularly:
      1. History defined; history as different from myth
      2. World history as having multiple cultural perspectives
      3. The practical importance of the study of history, and in particular, world history, for global citizenry
      4. Historical research methodologies appropriate to the study of an integrated approach to world history
      5. Frameworks used to analyze historical processes, phenomena, and events from a global perspective
    2. Sources in the study of civilizations and cultures in world history, from 1750 CE to the present, particularly:
      1. Defining historical sources: primary and secondary
      2. Critical analysis of historical evidence; awareness of diverse approaches; construction of arguments
      3. Objectivity and perspective; interpretation and critical reflection; validity and impact; proper citation of sources
      4. Historiography and its relationship to the development of world history as a field
  2. Use primary and secondary sources from a diverse range of authors to contribute to an understanding of significant themes in the development of world history, while also fostering recognition and appreciation of the contributions of its diverse peoples: analyzing broad patterns of change on both an inter-regional scale and within complex societies; and, explain, interpret, or evaluate the historical, social, political, philosophical, literary, artistic and aesthetic developments across the boundaries of civilizations, regions, and cultures.
    1. Major Themes in World History from 1750 CE to the present, including:
      1. Political: Analyze, compare, and contrast distinctive forms of political organization in world history and their impact, including forms of governance, state-building, empires, expansion, conflict, and inter-state relations
      2. Economic: Explain various forms of economic organization in world history and their global impact,

        including agricultural and pastoral production, trade and commerce, labor systems, and networks

        of exchange
      3. Social: Analyze the development and transformation of social structures in early world history, including gender roles and relations, family and kinship, racial and ethnic constructions, and social and economic classes
      4. Cultural: Explain the historical significance of cultural developments in religions, belief systems, philosophies, literature, ideologies, science and technology, arts, aesthetics, and architecture in early world history
      5. Environmental: Analyze the ways in which the world’s physical and natural environment has affected and been affected by developments in human history, including demography and disease, migration, patterns of settlement, biological exchange, and technology
    2. Recognition of the contributions of diverse peoples in the development of world history, including:
      1. The impact of ethnic and racial diversity
      2. The roles and experiences of women and men
      3. The experiences of the working classes and the issue of slavery
      4. The role of human sexuality and the issue of sexual orientation
      5. The role of dissent with regard to belief systems
  3. Demonstrate knowledge of various geographical regions over time and examine and assess the role of geography in shaping or influencing human societies throughout world history.
    1. Knowledge of geography in world history; continents, civilizations, and cultural and regional areas
    2. Understanding the extent of human knowledge of geographical space in various historical time periods
    3. Ability to assess the relationship of geography to historical events over time
    4. Political, economic, social, demographic, and environmental factors related to geographic influences
  4. Use primary and secondary sources from multicultural, different methodologies, or perspectives to interpret and analyze historical evidence in order to: develop critical thinking skills, formulate multicultural, complex assessments, or diverse interpretations of historical issues and problems, including the impact on ordinary persons within world history, and to understand the chronology of the stages of development in the world from 1750 CE to the present.
    1. The Age of Revolution (1750 - 1914), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Impact of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment on the Age of Revolution in a global context, including cultural, artistic, literary and architectural
      2. American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions in anti-monarchical and anti-colonial contexts
      3. Efforts to create constitution-based self-governments, expand the suffrage, and begin public education
      4. Movements against slavery, serfdom, and peonage in a global context; results in various nations
      5. Rise of new nations and nationalisms in a global context; civic vs. racial vs. racist vs. anti-colonial nationalisms; examples such as U.S., France, Germany, Italy, Ireland, Eastern European states, Egypt, Palestine, Israel, Russia, Japan, Latin American states
      6. Diversity of women’s rights movements and women’s suffrage movements in global context of revolution
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Jefferson, Rousseau, Simon Bolivar, Touissant Louverture, Frederick Douglass, Mary Wollstonecraft, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, feminist Huda Sharawi of Egypt)
    2. The Age of Industrialization (1750 - 1914), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Reasons for origins of Industrial Revolution in Britain and Europe; comparison and contrast with China
      2. New inventions: steam engine, steel blast furnace, railroad, steamship, electricity, automobile, airplane
      3. Urbanization, immigration, population increase, birth control; environmental impact of industrialization
      4. Formation of upper, middle, and working classes; factory labor and changing gender roles; child labor
      5. Social protests; struggles for unions and labor laws; contrasts between capitalism, socialism, communism
      6. Industrialization’s varied impact in diverse regions globally: such as the emerging U.S., Russia, and Latin America, including culturally, artistically, philosophically, in literature and architectural expression
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., James Watt and invention of steam engine, Karl Marx, Clara Zetkin, Jose Marti, Margaret Sanger, Olive Schreiner)
    3. The Age of European Colonial Encounters in Asia and Africa (1750 - 1914), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Industrialization and imperialism of Europe in Asia and Africa; impact of colonialism and social Darwinism (distinguish between Darwin’s theory of evolution and the various efforts to justify colonialism)
      2. Economic and political impact of imperialism; colonial economies, labor systems, state powers, rebellions
      3. European imperialism in India, Africa, and other regions; U.S. imperialism in Latin America and the Philippines
      4. Imperialism and colonialism’s impact on the environment, culture, and society (e.g., in ecological vitality or depletion, religion, education, marriage, population growth or decline, art, music, literary, architecture, philosophically and aesthetics)
      5. Impact of European imperialism in Asia and Africa with regard to gender roles, class, racial hierarchies
      6. Historically influential persons (e.g., Cecil Rhodes, Queen Victoria, Rani of Jhansi, Emilio Aguinaldo)
    4. The Age of Empires and Collisions between the European West, the Middle East, and East Asia (1800 - 1914), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. European and U.S. military, political, social, philosophical, cultural and economic intrusions in East Asia, the Middle East, and Africa
      2. Crisis and rebellions in Qing dynasty China (e.g., Taiping, Boxer); European political, economic, social, philosophical and cultural intrusions; Chinese reforms and revolutions
      3. Decline of the Ottoman Empire after European political, social, philosophical, cultural and economic intrusions; origins of Turkey; contrasting Islamic reforms
      4. Tokugawa Japan, shogun, and samurai; U.S. political, social, philosophical, cultural and economic intrusions; Japan’s recourse as an industrializing and modern nation
      5. Inter-relations between states in the Asian sphere: Russia, Japan, China, and others; U.S. in the Pacific
      6. Modernizing gender roles, class formation, ethnic identity, and environmental issues in age of collisions
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Hong Xiuquan as leader of Taiping Rebellion, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk as Father of Turkey, Queen Lili’uokalani of Hawaii, Emperor Mutsuhito of Meiji-era Japan)
    5. The World in Upheaval: The World Wars, Great Depression, and Re-balancing (1914 - 1970), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, philosophical, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. World War I and its legacies; industrialized warfare; League of Nations; decline of imperial systems
      2. Cultural change and postwar developments in modern art and architecture, literature, philosophy, science, psychology, and sexuality
      3. Great Depression in a global context; economic reform efforts and contrast between U.S. and Europe; cultural expressions
      4. Fascism, Naziism; World War II and its legacies; total war; Holocaust; atomic bomb; United Nations
      5. Recovery of Europe and Asia; move towards European Union; impact of the war on colonized nations
      6. Class, race, gender and the suffrage in wake of world wars; environmental, cultural, philosophical, aesthetic and technological change
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Freud, Einstein, Wilson, Hitler, Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin, Simone de Beauvoir, Fatma Aliye Topuz, Rosario Castellanos)
    6. Global Conflict between Socialism and Capitalism and the Rise and Fall of World Communism (1917 - present), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, philosophical, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Russian and Chinese revolutions; origins of communist parties and anti-communist efforts globally
      2. Building of socialist agriculture and industry; comparison and contrast with capitalist systems
      3. Cold War between the U.S. and U.S.S.R., nuclear standoff, Cuban missile crisis, cultural competition
      4. Rivalry for Third World nations and political and economic impact; wars in Vietnam, Afghanistan, Middle East
      5. Paths to the fall of global communism; different outcomes for China, Russia, and other states
      6. Gender, ethnic, cultural, philosophical and environmental issues within communist and capitalist societies
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Lenin, Mao, Castro, Ho Chi Minh, Kwame Nkrumah, Lech Walesa, Gorbachev, Alexandra Kollontai)
    7. Decolonization and the End of Empires (1914 - present), new identities for the Global South, developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, philosophical, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Political, economic, philosophical and cultural factors (and a weaker Europe) leading to end of empires in world history
      2. Decolonization movements; non-violence and armed struggle; creating new social, political, philosophical, cultural and economic systems in relation to mass communication
      3. India, Pakistan, and other Asian states such as Indonesia in the efforts for independence and nationhood
      4. Decolonization in South Africa and other African states such as Ghana; anti-apartheid; pan-Africanism
      5. Mexican Revolution, Latin American states, rebellion against U.S. hegemony; civil rights movements in U.S.
      6. Gender, race, and class, in relation to social, political, philosophical, cultural, and environmental issues during the decolonization process (e.g., representation)
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Mohandas Gandhi, Emiliano Zapata, Thomas Sankara, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King, Jr., Rigoberta Menchu)
    8. Nationalism, economic growth, and political identity in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Europe (1945 - present), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, philosophical, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Demography of new world powers; democratization; efforts to end autocratic political regimes globally
      2. Nuclear proliferation and the disruption of past hegemony in world politics; role of peace movements; cultural (e.g., artistic, literary, philosophical and mass media) expressions
      3. Rising industrialized states such as South Africa, India, Brazil, Nigeria, South Korea; new economic and political roles
      4. Contrasting political, philosophical and cultural developments in Middle East (e.g., Turkey, Iran); impact of Arab Spring
      5. Persistent economic inequalities among nations and peoples; health care disparities, AIDS crisis
      6. Role of new female political leaders in contrast to persistence of patriarchy globally
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Ayatollah Khomeini, Presidents Corazon Aquino of the Phillipines, Dilma Roussef of Brazil, Angela Merkel of Germany, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia)
    9. Globalization on a New Scale: Approaching a World without Borders (1980 - present), developments within and interrelations between major states, analysis of their wider influence and of the era’s political, economic, social, philosophical, cultural, and environmental impact, such as:
      1. Capitalism, the transformation of the global economy, and impact on workers; impact of the internet age; cultural, philosophical, individual versus collective impact
      2. Globalization and role of the U.S. as remaining superpower; economic, political, and cultural impact
      3. Fundamentalism and terrorism on a global scale; religious alternatives; global efforts for education
      4. Women’s rights, gay and lesbian rights, and human rights movements in a global context, including cultural, philosophical, and artistic expressions
      5. Global environmental pollution; global warming; energy crisis; green movements in a global context, including cultural, philosophical, and artistic expressions
      6. The United Nations and reflections on the possibility of a world without political or economic borders
      7. Historically influential persons (e.g., Rachel Carson, Harvey Milk, Malala Yousafzai of Pakistan for female rights)
  5. Critically analyze the impact of a major historical event or historical figure(s), indicate both long-and short-term historical significance or compare and contrast with a contemporary event(s) or figure(s), for world history from 1750 CE to the present, to fulfill the college honors requirements for this course.
    1. Inclusion of analysis of both primary historical documents and secondary historical sources.
    2. Indication of students' understanding of historiographical debate over the interpretation(s) of significant historical issues.
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